INTRODUCTION
The concept of Semantics
Semantics is the study of meaning in language. It encompasses how words, phrases, and sentences convey meaning and how these meanings can change based on context. The field investigates various aspects of meaning, including the relationships between signs (words or expressions) and what they refer to in the real world. Semantics also intends to explore the relationship between words. Being able to interpret an entire sentence holds more value than understanding the individual word meanings. This is because the relationship of the words may change the meaning of individual words.
The Categories of Semantics
Semantics can be broken down into the following three subcategories, these include the following:
Formal semantics
Formal semantics is the study of grammatical meaning in natural language. In other words, it intends to define the meaning of words and phrases based on its grammatical structure. It aims to provide a rigorous framework for understanding how linguistic expressions convey meaning, focusing on the relationships between syntax (structure) and semantics (meaning). This field combines insights from linguistics, philosophy, logic, and computer science to analyze how sentences can be interpreted based on their components.
Key Concepts in Formal Semantics
Truth Conditions: Understanding the meaning of a sentence often involves knowing under what circumstances it would be true or false. For example, the sentence “Nancy smokes” has truth conditions that specify it is true if Nancy performs the action of smoking.
Compositionality: This principle states that the meaning of a complex expression is determined by the meanings of its parts and how they are combined. For instance, in “The cat is tall,” the meaning can be derived from understanding what “the cat” refers to and what “is tall” means.
Scope: Scope refers to the order in which different parts of a sentence apply semantically. In “Paulina doesn’t drink beer but she does drink wine,” the negation applies only to drinking beer, not to drinking wine.
Binding: This phenomenon occurs when anaphoric elements (like pronouns) are linked to their antecedents within a sentence. For example, in “Mary saw herself,” “herself” refers back to “Mary.”
Modality: Modality deals with expressions that discuss possibilities rather than actualities. Sentences like “Nancy might have smoked” express potential scenarios rather than definitive truths.
Examples of Formal Semantics
Example 1 - Truth Conditions: The sentence “The sky is blue” has truth conditions that require verifying whether the sky indeed appears blue at a given time and place.
Example 2 - Compositionality: The adjective “tall” can be defined as a function that takes an individual (e.g., Mary) as input and outputs whether that individual meets the criteria for being tall (true or false).
Example 3 - Scope: In the ambiguous sentence “Every student read a book,” it could mean either every student read some book or there exists one book that every student read depending on how we interpret scope.
Example 4 - Binding: In the sentence “John said he would come,” “he” binds back to “John,” indicating who will come.
Example 5 - Modality: The statement “If I were rich, I would travel” expresses a hypothetical situation rather than asserting something about reality.
Lexical Semantics
Lexical semantics is a subfield of linguistic semantics that focuses on the study of word meanings. It encompasses various aspects, including how words structure their meanings, how they function within grammar, and the relationships between different senses and uses of a word. The primary units of analysis in lexical semantics are lexical units, which can include not only individual words but also sub-words (like affixes) and compound words or phrases.
Key Areas of Lexical Semantics
Classification and Decomposition of Lexical Items
This involves categorizing words based on their meanings and understanding how these meanings can be broken down into smaller components.
Cross-Linguistic Similarities and Differences
Lexical semantics examines how different languages express similar concepts through their vocabulary, revealing both unique features and commonalities across languages.
Relationship between Lexical Meaning and Sentence Meaning
This area explores how the meaning of individual words contributes to the overall meaning of sentences, as well as how syntax interacts with semantics.
Conceptual Semantics
This approach examines the basic concepts behind words before they are influenced by personal thoughts or feelings. It looks at how different contexts can alter our understanding of a term. Is an approach to understanding meaning in language that emphasizes the relationship between linguistic expressions and the underlying mental representations or concepts that they evoke. This perspective focuses on how people use language to convey thoughts and ideas, linking semantics closely with cognition.
Key Features of Conceptual Semantics
Universal Meaning:
Conceptual semantics posits that each word has a single, universal meaning that combines both its lexical semantic meaning and its conceptual representation. This is referred to as “lexical concepts.” For example, the word “dog” refers to a specific type of animal universally recognized as a domesticated canine, regardless of the language or culture.
Decomposition of Meaning
Just like physical entities can be broken down into smaller components, meanings can also be decomposed into basic elements called semantic primes or primitives. It involves breaking down meanings into smaller parts or conceptual primitives. This approach allows for a deeper understanding of how complex meanings are constructed from simpler elements. For instance, the concept of “running” can be decomposed into primitives such as “movement,” “speed,” and “action.”
Semantic Primes and Ontological Categories
Conceptual semantics categorizes meanings into ontological categories known as semantic primes or semantic primitives, which include events, states, places, amounts, things, and properties. For example, the concept of “birthday” can be broken down into an event (celebration), a time (specific date), and participants (friends and family)
Compositionality
The theory asserts that the meanings of phrases and sentences can be derived from their constituent lexical concepts in a compositional manner. This means that understanding a sentence like “The cat chased the mouse” involves recognizing the individual meanings of “cat,” “chased,” and “mouse” and how they interact within that context.
MODULE 1: CONCEPTS AND MEANING
1.1 The Concept of Meaning
Meaning refers to the significance or interpretation of words, phrases, sentences, and texts within a language. It encompasses various aspects including denotation (the literal meaning), connotation (the emotional or cultural associations), and the relationships between signs and what they represent. Understanding meaning in semantics involves analyzing how language conveys information and how different contexts can alter interpretations. The term “meaning” encompasses what is conveyed by language and how it is understood by individuals. Meaning can be derived from various contexts, including linguistic, cultural, and situational factors
1.2 Types of Meanings
Understanding the various types of meaning in language is crucial for effective communication. Leech (1974), a prominent linguist, identified seven types of meaning that help us understand how language conveys different nuances and implications. Each type of meaning plays a crucial role in communication, influencing how words are interpreted in various contexts. Below is a detailed explanation of each type along with examples
1.2.1 Conceptual Meaning (Denotative Meaning)
Conceptual meaning, often referred to as denotative meaning, is the primary, literal meaning of a word or phrase. It is the literal, explicit definition of a word as found in the dictionary. It is the primary meaning of a word, devoid of any emotional or cultural associations that may accompany it. Understanding denotative meaning is crucial for clear communication, as it provides a foundational understanding upon which more nuanced interpretations can be built.
Examples:
The word “dog” denotes a domesticated canine animal. Its conceptual meaning is simply that—a four-legged pet commonly kept by humans.
Word: "Water"
Conceptual Meaning: A clear, colorless, odorless, and tasteless liquid essential for life, composed of hydrogen and oxygen (H2O).
Explanation: The definition captures the essential characteristics of water, focusing solely on its chemical and physical properties.
1.2.2 Connotative Meaning
Connotation meaning refers to the additional meanings, emotions, or associations that a word carries beyond its literal definition (denotation). Connotative Meanings go beyond the literal definitions are shaped by cultural, social, and personal experiences, and they can evoke feelings, ideas, or images in the minds of speakers and listeners. This aspect of language is crucial for effective communication, as it influences how words are perceived and understood in different contexts.
Example:
"Home"
Denotative Meaning: A place where one lives.
Connotative Meaning: Warmth, safety, comfort, family, belonging, or nostalgia.
Explanation: While "home" literally refers to a physical structure, it often evokes feelings of love and security.
"Snake"
Denotative Meaning: A legless reptile of the suborder Serpentes.
Connotative Meaning: Deceit, danger, treachery, or fear.
Explanation: In many cultures, snakes are associated with negative traits, such as being untrustworthy or harmful, influenced by cultural stories and experiences.
1.2.3 Collocative Meaning
Collocative Meaning refers to the associations that words have when they frequently appear together, forming specific phrases or combinations. These collocations can influence the meaning of a word based on its context and the other words it commonly pairs with. This phenomenon is important in understanding how language works, as it reveals patterns of word association that can influence meaning and usage. Understanding collocative meaning helps in grasping the nuances of language and can improve fluency and comprehension.
Examples:
"Bright"
Common Collocations: "bright light," "bright future," "bright idea."
Explanation: "Bright" collocates with "light" to describe something with high visibility, while "bright future" conveys optimism about what is to come, and "bright idea" suggests a clever or innovative thought.
"Heavy"
Common Collocations: "heavy rain," "heavy metal," "heavy workload."
Explanation: The word "heavy" often collocates with "rain," indicating a significant amount of precipitation. In contrast, "heavy metal" refers to a genre of music, and "heavy workload" suggests a significant amount of tasks or responsibilities.
1.2.4 Affective Meaning
Affective meaning refers to the emotional or attitudinal associations that a speaker conveys through their choice of words. In other words, Affective Meaning is the emotional responses or feelings that words evoke in individuals. It is closely related to the speaker’s feelings towards the listener or the subject matter being discussed. This type of meaning can vary significantly based on context, personal experiences, and the relationship between the speaker and the audience.
Example:
The word “war.” The denotative meaning refers to armed conflict between groups. However, affectively speaking, “war” might provoke feelings of anger and sorrow in some people due to personal connections with loss or trauma related to conflict.
The word “freedom.” While its denotative meaning relates to the state of being free or having liberty, its affective meaning can vary significantly from person to person. For some individuals, “freedom” may evoke feelings of joy and empowerment; for others who associate it with loss or chaos (perhaps due to personal experiences with instability), it could bring about anxiety or sadness.
1.2.5 Social Meaning
Social meaning in semantics refers to the cultural and social factors that influence the interpretation of language beyond its literal or dictionary meaning. In other words, social meaning is the implications and connotations that words or phrases carry within specific social contexts, including factors like class, age, gender, region, or social group. This meaning often reflects cultural norms and values, influencing how language is interpreted based on the social identity of the speaker and the audience. Social meaning is crucial for understanding how language functions in different contexts and how it can convey additional layers of information about identity, status, and relationships.
Examples:
Using formal titles such as “Dr.” or “Mr.” when addressing someone indicates respect for their social status or expertise.
The word "Dude" is used informally among friends, especially in younger demographics, "dude" conveys a sense of casualness and camaraderie. It can also imply a relaxed or laid-back attitude.
1.2.6 Reflected Meaning
Reflected meaning is a linguistic phenomenon where a word or phrase carries multiple meanings, and the activation of one meaning can influence the perception of another. This concept highlights how language can be rich in ambiguity and layered meanings, often leading to nuanced interpretations based on context. This concept was introduced by linguist Geoffrey Leech 1974, who described it as the meaning that arises when one sense of a word influences our understanding of another sense. Essentially, one meaning can “rub off” on another due to their conceptual proximity or frequency of use.
Examples:
The term “gay” originally meant happy but now primarily refers to sexual orientation; thus, its reflected meaning has shifted over time.
The word “intercourse” originally meant the act of communication or exchange between people. Due to its frequent association with sexual contexts, many people avoid using it in non-sexual discussions (e.g., discussing communication) because they fear it may be misinterpreted or lead to awkwardness.
1.2.7 Thematic Meaning
Thematic Meaning refers to the central ideas, concepts, or themes that are conveyed through a piece of text, dialogue, or discourse. In other words, thematic meaning refers to the way we order our message conveys what is important and what is not. Thus, active voice is different from passive voice though its conceptual meaning is the same.
Examples
Mr. Smith gave the first prize.
The first prize was given by Mr. Smith.
In the first sentence “who gave away the prize “was more important, but in the second sentence “what Mr. Smith gave was more important”. Thus, the change of focus has changed the meaning.
3. John is married to Mary.
4. Mary is married to John.
Who is more important in the 3rd sentence? In the 4th?
5. I will do it tomorrow. ( neutral way)
6. Tomorrow, I will do it. (a promise)
3. NON COMPOSITIONAL MEANING IN SEMANTICS
In semantics, non-compositional meaning refers to expressions or phrases whose meanings cannot be derived from the meanings of their individual components. Instead, the overall meaning depends on idiomatic usage, cultural context, or specific conventions that dictate how the components work together. This concept highlights instances where the overall meaning of a phrase is not simply a sum of its parts, challenging the principle of compositionality, which posits that the meaning of complex expressions is determined by the meanings of their constituents and the rules used to combine them.
Types of Non-Compositional Meanings
Idioms
An idiom is a phrase or expression that has a figurative meaning that cannot be understood by interpreting the individual words literally. Essentially, idioms are unique to a particular language and culture, making them challenging for non-native speakers to grasp. The meanings of idioms often reflect cultural nuances and shared experiences among speakers of the language
Examples
Kick the bucket” - This idiom means to die. It does not refer to an actual bucket but rather serves as a euphemism for death.
“Spill the beans” - This phrase means to reveal a secret. Again, it does not involve any literal spilling of beans; instead, it conveys the idea of disclosing information.
“Break a leg” - Commonly used in theater, this idiom is meant to wish someone good luck without actually saying “good luck,” which is considered bad luck in performance contexts.
NB: Understanding idioms requires cultural knowledge and context.
Metaphors
A metaphor is a figure of speech that makes an implicit comparison between two unrelated things, suggesting that one thing is another. This comparison does not use “like” or “as,” which distinguishes it from similes. Instead, metaphors assert that something is something else, thereby creating vivid imagery and deeper meaning.
Examples
Life is a journey.” (Here, life is compared to a journey, suggesting experiences and progress.)
“Her voice was music to his ears.” (This implies her voice brought joy and pleasure.)
“He has a heart of stone.” (This suggests he lacks compassion or empathy.)
Phrasal Verbs
Phrasal verbs are combinations of a verb with one or more particles, which can be either adverbs or prepositions. These combinations create a new meaning that is often different from the meanings of the individual words when used separately. Phrasal verbs are commonly used in English, especially in informal contexts, and they can convey a wide range of meanings.
Examples of Phrasal Verbs
Look up: This phrasal verb means to search for information, typically in a reference source like a dictionary or database.
Example: “I need to look up the definition of this word.”
Give up: This means to stop trying or to surrender.
Example: “After several failed attempts, she decided to give up on her project.”
Put up with: This means to tolerate something unpleasant.
Example: “I can’t put up with his constant complaining anymore
Break down: This can refer to a machine stopping working or an emotional collapse.
Example (machine): “My car broke down on the way to work.”
Example (emotional): “He broke down in tears after hearing the news.
Cultural References
Expressions that rely on specific cultural contexts can also be non-compositional. For instance, saying someone is “the black sheep” refers to a person who is different from others in a group, particularly in a negative sense, but this meaning does not derive from the individual words.
Compound Words with Unique Meanings
Some compound words may have unique meanings that do not align with their components. For example, “butterfly” does not refer to a fly made out of butter; instead, it denotes a specific type of insect.
Euphemisms
Euphemisms involve using milder or indirect terms to replace those that may be considered harsh or unpleasant.
Example: "Passed away."
Literal Meaning: To go somewhere.
Euphemistic Meaning: To die.
Explanation: The phrase is used to soften the impact of the concept of death, making it less direct and more palatable.
Hyperboles
Hyperbole refers to a figure of speech that involves deliberate and extravagant exaggeration for emphasis or effect. It is not meant to be taken literally but serves to convey strong feelings, create a vivid image, or emphasize a point.
Examples
Saying “I’m so hungry I could eat a horse” is hyperbolic; it emphasizes the speaker’s hunger without implying they would actually consume an entire horse.
“I have millions of works to do” is also hyperbolic, it implies that the speaker has a lot of works to do.
OTHER CATEGORIES OF MEANING
Pragmatic Meaning
Pragmatic meaning" refers to the interpretation of language that considers the context in which words are used, focusing on how meaning is shaped by practical circumstances and social interactions.
Example: Imagine a friend says, "It's cold in here," while standing near an open window.
Literal Meaning: The room has a low temperature.
Pragmatic Meaning: The friend may be implying that you should close the window, rather than just making an observation about the temperature.
Symbolic Meaning
Symbolic meaning refers to the deeper, often abstract significance that a word, object, or action carries beyond its literal interpretation. Symbols represent ideas, concepts, or qualities, often drawing on cultural or contextual associations. This concept is prevalent in literature, art, and everyday life, where symbols are used to convey complex ideas and emotions. The essence of symbolic meaning lies in the relationship between the symbol and what it represents.
Examples
Colors
Example: The color red.
Symbolic Meaning: Red often symbolizes love, passion, or anger. For instance, red roses represent romantic love, while a red traffic light signifies the need to stop.
Animals
Example: The dove.
Symbolic Meaning: A dove typically symbolizes peace and purity. In many cultures, it represents hope and reconciliation, often depicted in art or literature to convey these ideas.
Objects
Example: A wedding ring.
Symbolic Meaning: A wedding ring symbolizes commitment and eternal love between partners. While its physical form is a simple piece of jewelry, its symbolic meaning carries significant emotional weight in relationships.
MODULE 2: SENSE (LEXICAL) RELATIONS
Sense or lexical relations refer to the ways in which words are related to each other based on their meanings. These relationships help us understand how words interact within a language and how they convey meaning in different contexts. Below are some key types of sense/lexical relations along with examples.
2.1 Synonymy
Synonymy is the relationship between words that have similar meanings. Synonyms can often be used interchangeably in sentences without changing the overall meaning. However, perfect synonymy is rare due to differences in connotation, usage, or context.
Examples
big” and “large”
She lives in a big house.”
She lives in a large house.”
“terrible” and “awful”
The party was terrible.
The party was awful.
2.2 Antonymy
Antonymy refers to the relationship between words that have opposite meanings. Antonyms can be categorized into several types as follows:
2.2.1 Gradable Antonyms
Gradable antonyms are pairs of words that express opposite qualities but exist on a continuum. This means that instead of being strictly binary (like "alive" and "dead"), they can have varying degrees or levels between them. Here are some examples to illustrate this concept.
Examples:
Hot and Cold
A temperature can be "warm" (moderately hot), "cool" (moderately cold), or anything in between, indicating that these terms are not absolute.
Big and Small
Something can be "large," "medium," or "tiny," reflecting different sizes along the spectrum
Easy and Hard
A task might be "simple," "challenging," or "difficult," showcasing varying levels of difficulty.
Tall and Short
A person can be "average height," "above average," or "very tall," indicating that height is not strictly one or the other.
For instance, temperature can vary from hot to cold with many degrees in between (e.g., warm or cool), and size can range from big to small with various sizes in between.
2.2.2 Complementary (Non gradable) Antonyms
Complementary antonyms, also known as binary or contradictory antonyms, represent pairs of words where one word’s positive use means the negative use of the other. These antonyms explains an either-or relationship between the opposite word pairs. In this case, there is no middle ground; something can either be one or the other but not both at the same time.
Examples
Alive — Dead
True — False
Married —Single
On — Off
In these examples, if something is alive, it cannot simultaneously be dead; similarly, a light cannot be both on and off at the same time
2.2.3 Relational Antonyms
Relational antonyms (also known as converse antonyms) express a relationship between two words/entities that are opposites in terms of their roles or functions. Each word in the pair relies on the existence of the other for its meaning.
Examples:
Teacher — Student
Buy — Sell
Parent — Child
Husband — Wife
In these cases, you cannot have a teacher without a student; similarly, buying implies selling, and being a parent inherently involves having a child.
2.2.4 Auto-Antonyms (Contronyms)
Auto-antonyms, also known as contronyms are words that have multiple meanings that contradict each other. This means that one word can serve as its own antonym depending on context.
Dust (verb)
To remove dust (cleaning) e.g. I need to dust the furniture before our guests arrive.
To sprinkle with dust (adding) e.g. She decided to dust the cookies with powdered sugar before serving.
Overlook
To fail to notice something (e.g. I overlooked the mistake in the report and submitted it without realizing).
To supervise or oversee something (e.g. As the project manager, I will overlook the team’s progress and ensure everything stays on track).
Left
To have gone away (e.g., "She left the room")
Remaining (e.g., "There are three cookies left")
2.3 Hyponymy
Hyponymy describes a relationship where one word (the hyponym) is a more specific term within a broader category represented by another word (the hypernym). In other words, hyponymy involves a hierarchical relationship where the meaning of one word is included within another. The general term is called a hypernym, while specific instances are called hyponyms.
Examples
Hypernym: “animal”
Hyponyms: “dog,” “cat,” and “horse.
Hypernym: “fruit”
Hyponym:“Orange,” “mango,” and “apple”
2.4. Homonymy
Refers to the linguistic phenomenon that, occurs when two or more words share the same spelling or pronunciation but have different meanings. They can create confusion in language due to their dual meanings, yet they also add richness and playfulness to writing.
Types of Homonyms
Homophones
Homophones are words that sound the same but have different meanings and different spellings. They can lead to confusion in spoken language but can be distinguished in written form.
Examples
Right/ Write
Right: correct (e.g. the referee was right to disallow the goal)
Write: to inscribe (e.g. I want to write a letter)
Flour / Flower
Flour: a powder used for baking (e.g., "I need flour for the recipe.")
Flower: a blooming plant (e.g., "She picked a flower.")
Knight / Night
Knight: a medieval warrior (e.g., "The knight fought bravely.")
Night: the period of darkness (e.g., "The stars shine at night.")
Sight / Site / Cite
Sight: the ability to see (e.g., "The view is a beautiful sight.")
Site: a location (e.g., "The construction site is busy.")
Cite: to reference (e.g., "Please cite your sources.")
Homographs
Homographs are words that are spelled the same but have different meanings and may or may not be pronounced differently.
Examples
“lead”:
As a verb, it means to guide or direct (pronounced as /leed/), e.g., She will lead the team.
As a noun, it refers to a type of metal (pronounced as /led/), e.g., The pipes were made of lead.
“tear”:
As a verb, it means to rip something apart (pronounced as /tษr/), e.g., Be careful not to tear the paper.
As a noun, it refers to a drop of liquid from the eye (pronounced as /tษชr/), e.g., A tear rolled down her cheek.
2.5 Polysemy
Polysemy is a linguistic phenomenon where a single word or phrase has multiple related meanings. This concept illustrates how language evolves and how words can adapt to convey different ideas while maintaining a connection to their original meaning.
Examples
Bank
Financial institution: "I need to go to the bank to withdraw some money."
Side of a river: "We sat on the bank of the river to have a picnic."
Spring
A season: "I love the flowers that bloom in spring."
To leap or jump: "The cat will spring onto the table."
A source of water: "The villagers get water from a natural spring."
Light
Brightness: "The room was filled with light from the window."
Not heavy: "This bag is very light; I can carry it easily."
2.6 Meronymy
Meronymy is a semantic relationship that describes the connection between a part (the meronym) and the whole (the holonym). In other words, a meronymy is a pair of words expressing a part-whole relationship where one word denotes a part of something larger. The word naming the part is called the meronym. For example, hand, brain and eye are all meronyms of body; door, roof and kitchen are all meronyms of house; etc.
Examples
The word “wheel” is a meronym of “car,” as it represents a part of the whole vehicle.
The words “hand”, “brain” and “eye” are all meronyms of body.
The word “leaf” functions as a meronym of “tree,” highlighting that leaves are parts of trees
USES OF SENSE (LEXICAL) RELATIONS IN SEMANTICS
In semantics, sense relations, also known as lexical relations, play a crucial role in understanding how words relate to one another and how these relationships contribute to meaning. These relations help linguists and language learners analyze the meanings of words based on their interconnections. Here are some key uses of sense relations in semantics:
Understanding Meaning
Sense relations allow for a deeper understanding of word meanings by highlighting how words can be synonymous, antonymous, or hierarchically related. For example, the words “big” and “large” are synonyms; they can often be used interchangeably without altering the meaning of a sentence. This understanding helps clarify nuances in language.
Examples:
“The elephant is big.”
“The elephant is large.”
Both sentences convey the same idea about the size of the elephant.
Enhancing Vocabulary Acquisition
By studying sense relations, learners can expand their vocabulary more effectively. Recognizing synonyms and antonyms enables learners to understand multiple ways to express similar concepts or opposing ideas.
Example:
Synonyms: “happy” and “joyful”
Antonyms: “hot” and “cold”
Understanding these relationships allows learners to use a richer variety of expressions.
Useful in Semantic Analysis
Lexical relations facilitate semantic analysis by providing frameworks for categorizing words into groups based on shared characteristics or oppositional features. This categorization aids in linguistic research and computational linguistics.
Examples:
Hyponymy: The word “rose” is a hyponym of “flower,” indicating that all roses are flowers but not all flowers are roses.
Hypernymy: Conversely, “flower” serves as a hypernym for “rose,” encompassing a broader category.
Disambiguation
Sense relations help disambiguate words with multiple meanings (polysemy) by clarifying which meaning is intended based on context. Understanding related terms can guide interpretation.
Examples:
The word “bank” can refer to a financial institution or the side of a river. Knowing its relation to other terms like “money” (financial institution) or “river” (side of a river) aids in determining its intended meaning.
Supporting Language Teaching
Teachers use sense relations to illustrate word meanings, relationships, and context, enhancing language education.
Examples:
Teaching students that "big" and "small" are antonyms can help them grasp the concept of size more effectively.
Useful in Semantic Hierarchies
Lexical relations create semantic hierarchies that illustrate relationships among concepts, which can be useful for organizing knowledge in fields such as information retrieval and artificial intelligence.
Example:
In taxonomy:
Animal → Mammal → Dog → Beagle
This hierarchy shows how specific terms relate to more general categories
MODULE 3: REFERENCE AND REFFERING EXPRESSIONS
The concept of reference
Reference is the relationship between a linguistic expression (such as a word or phrase) and the actual object or entity it denotes in the real world. It involves understanding how words, phrases, or sentences relate to objects, concepts, or states of affairs outside of language itself. This relationship allows speakers to communicate about specific things, people, places, or ideas. For example, when someone says “the Eiffel Tower,” they are referring to a specific landmark located in Paris, France. The act of referring involves using language to point to something that exists outside of the language itself.
What is Referent?
A referent is defined as the specific person, thing, or idea that a word or expression denotes, stands for, or refers to in the real world. It is the actual entity, object, person, or concept in the world that a word or phrase refers to. It is the actual or specific thing denoted by the reference. It represents the actual entity that a linguistic expression points to.
Examples of Referents
Concrete Objects:
In the sentence “The black door is open,” the referent of the word “door” is a specific physical object—a particular black door that exists in reality.
People:
In the phrase “Mary saw me,” the referent of “Mary” is the actual person named Mary who is being referred to in that context.
Abstract Concepts:
The term “freedom” can have various referents depending on context; it may refer to political freedom, personal liberty, or even philosophical concepts of autonomy.
TYPES OF REFERENCE
In semantics, reference is a crucial concept that deals with the relationship between linguistic expressions and the entities they refer to in the real world. There are several types of reference. Below are some of them.
Constant Reference
Constant reference refers to the idea that a particular linguistic expression consistently refers to the same entity or concept throughout a discourse, or even in different contexts of usage. These references do not change over time or across different situations.
Examples:
The Moon: This expression always refers to the natural satellite orbiting Earth.
Canada: This term consistently refers to the country located in North America.
The Red Sea: This expression always denotes the body of water located between Africa and Asia.
The Nile: refers specifically to the river that flows through northeastern Africa. Regardless of discussions about rivers or geography, “the Nile” will always denote this particular river.
The term “H2O” universally represents water in chemical contexts. It does not vary based on different discussions; it always denotes the same molecular compound.
In all these cases, no matter when or where you use these terms, they will always point to the same referent.
3.3.2 Variable (Changeable) Reference
Variable reference involves expressions that can refer to different entities depending on context or time. This means that the entity or object that a term refers to is not fixed but can change based on different circumstances, events, or periods. Understanding this concept is crucial for grasping how language functions in relation to the real world and how meanings can shift depending on various factors.
Examples:
The USA President
The referent changes with each election cycle.
The USA President (2009-2017) - Barack Obama.
The USA President (2017-2021) - Donald Trump
The USA President (2021-2024) - Joe Biden.
I will see you “tomorrow”
Tomorrow" refers to the day following the utterance.
If this sentence is spoken on a Monday, "tomorrow" refers to Tuesday.
If spoken on a Wednesday, "tomorrow" refers to Thursday.
If spoken on Friday “tomorrow” refers to Saturday.
So, "tomorrow" changes its reference depending on when the sentence is spoken.
3.3.3 Multiple Reference
Multiple reference refers to situations where different linguistic expressions refer to the same entity or referent in the real world. This phenomenon highlights how language can provide various ways to identify or describe a single object, person, or concept. Understanding multiple reference is crucial for grasping how meaning is constructed and communicated in language.
Examples
Barack Obama:
The 44th President of the United States
The president from 2009 to 2017
The first African American president
The husband of Michelle Obama
In this example, all these phrases refer to the same individual, Barack Obama. Each expression provides a different perspective or context about him but ultimately points to the same referent.
The Eiffel Tower:
The iconic landmark in Paris
The iron lattice tower built for the 1889 Exposition Universelle
A symbol of French culture and architecture
Here, each description refers to the same physical structure—the Eiffel Tower—yet they highlight different aspects of its significance and identity.
REFERRING EXPRESSIONS
Referring expressions are linguistic elements that indicate or "refer to" specific entities, objects, or individuals in the world. They help to identify what or who is being talked about in a given context. Referring expressions can take various forms, including nouns, noun phrases, pronouns, and definite descriptions. Here are some key types with examples.
Types of Referring Expressions
Proper Nouns
A proper noun is a name that refers to a specific, unique entity. Proper nouns usually provide a fixed and direct reference to an individual or a specific thing.
Examples:
"Alice is coming to the party."
The expression "Alice" is a referring expression that refers to a specific person named Alice. It has a direct reference to that individual.
Mount Everest is the tallest mountain in the world."
"Mount Everest" refers specifically to the tallest mountain, pointing directly to that entity.
Definite Descriptions
A definite description refers to an entity that is assumed to be uniquely identifiable within the context of the conversation or discourse. It typically uses the definite article "the" to introduce the referent.
Examples
"The President of the United States lives in the White House."
The phrase "The President of the United States" is a referring expression that identifies a specific individual. The use of "the" signals that the speaker assumes both they and their audience know which person is meant (in this case, the current president).
The Eiffel Tower is located in Paris."
"The Eiffel Tower" is a referring expression that points to a specific landmark. The use of the definite article "the" signals that the speaker expects the listener to know which tower is being referred to
Indefinite Descriptions
An indefinite description refers to something not uniquely identified, meaning that it can refer to any member of a set or class, not a specific, identified entity. It usually uses the indefinite articles "a" or "an".
Examples
I saw a cat in the garden."
"A cat" refers to any member of the category of cats. The indefinite article "a" implies that the specific cat is not identified or important to the listener at the time.
"She bought an apple."
Here, "an apple" is a referring expression that points to an apple, but the specific apple is not known to the listener. It could be any apple.
Pronouns
Pronouns are referring expressions that stand in for other nouns or noun phrases, often depending on context to determine what they refer to. Their reference changes depending on the context in which they are used.
Examples:
John was tired, so he went home."
"He" is a referring expression that refers back to "John". In this case, "he" takes the place of a noun (John), and its reference is determined by the context of the discourse.
They are coming over for dinner."
"They" is a referring expression, but it refers to multiple individuals. The actual referent (who "they" is) depends on the context. It could refer to a group of people previously mentioned or understood in the conversation.
Demonstratives
Demonstratives like "this", "that", "these", and "those" are referring expressions that point to specific things, usually in relation to the speaker's position or perspective in space and time.
Examples
"This is my favorite book."
"This" refers to a specific book, which is likely near the speaker or the topic of discussion. The referent of "this" can change depending on what the speaker is pointing to or talking about.
Those are delicious!"
"Those" refers to items that are far from the speaker. The referent of "those" is typically determined by the context or by the things the speaker is pointing to.
Quantifiers
Quantifiers are expressions that refer to quantities or amounts of entities, typically in the context of a group or set. Common quantifiers include "all," "some," "many," "few," "several," etc.".
Example:
I have many friends."
The quantifier many refers to a subset of the set of all possible friends, but the exact number is not specified.
"Some students are late."
The quantifier some refers to an unspecified number of students from a larger group.
Reflexive Expressions
Reflexives are referring expressions that refer back to the subject of the clause. In English, these are typically formed by adding "self" or "selves" to a personal pronoun (e.g., myself, yourself, himself).
Example:
"John saw himself in the mirror."
The reflexive pronoun himself refers back to the subject "John”
“Amina killed herself yesterday”
The reflexive pronoun herself refers back to the subject “Amina”
THE CONCEPT OF PARAPHRASE IN SEMANTICS
In semantics, paraphrasing refers to the process of rewording or restating a text while preserving its original meaning. This concept is crucial in understanding how language can be manipulated without altering the underlying message. In semantics, paraphrases are often analyzed to explore the relationships between different expressions that convey the same idea.
Tips for Effective Paraphrasing in Semantics
Paraphrasing is a crucial skill in writing, especially when it comes to maintaining the original meaning of a text while expressing it in your own words. Here are some effective tips for paraphrasing, particularly focusing on semantics.
Understand the Original Meaning
Before attempting to paraphrase, ensure that you fully comprehend the original text’s meaning. This involves analyzing the key ideas and concepts presented.
Example: If the original sentence states, “The rapid increase in urban population has led to significant environmental challenges,” you should grasp that it discusses urban growth and its impact on the environment.
Use Synonyms Wisely
Replacing words with synonyms can help create a paraphrase, but it’s essential to choose synonyms that accurately convey the same meaning without altering the context.
Example: Instead of saying “rapid increase,” you might use “swift rise.” However, be cautious; not all synonyms fit perfectly in every context.
Change Sentence Structure
Altering the structure of sentences can significantly differentiate your paraphrase from the original text. This may involve changing from active voice to passive voice or rearranging clauses.
Example: The original sentence “The committee approved the proposal” could be rephrased as “The proposal was approved by the committee
Break Down Complex Sentences
If you encounter long or complex sentences, consider breaking them down into shorter, simpler statements. This can make it easier to understand and rephrase effectively.
Example: The complex sentence “Due to various factors such as climate change and deforestation, many species are facing extinction” can be broken down into two sentences: “Many species are facing extinction. This is due to factors like climate change and deforestation.”
Combine Information from Multiple Sources
When paraphrasing information from several sources, synthesize their ideas into a cohesive statement that reflects your understanding while avoiding direct copying.
Example: If one source discusses pollution caused by cars and another mentions industrial waste, you could say: “Both vehicular emissions and industrial waste contribute significantly to urban pollution.”
Maintain Key Terms When Necessary
In some cases, specific terminology is crucial for conveying accurate meaning. Retaining these terms while changing other parts of the sentence helps preserve clarity.
Example: In discussing scientific concepts like “photosynthesis,” it’s important to keep this term intact while rephrasing surrounding explanations.
Cite Your Sources Appropriately
Even when paraphrasing effectively, always provide proper citations for your sources to avoid plagiarism and give credit where it’s due.
Example: After paraphrasing a concept from an article about climate change, include an in-text citation: (Author Last Name, Year)
Examples in Context
Original: "The meeting has been postponed until next week."
Paraphrase: "The meeting will take place next week instead of this week."
Original: "John is allergic to peanuts."
Paraphrase: "Peanuts trigger an allergy for John."
Original: "She is the best player on the team."
Paraphrase: "No one on the team plays better than she does.
2.5.2 IMPORTANCE OF PARAPHRASING
Paraphrasing plays a crucial role in semantics, which is the study of meaning in language. It involves rewording or restating text while preserving its original meaning. This process is essential for several reasons.
Enhancing Understanding of Meaning
Paraphrasing allows individuals to express complex ideas in simpler terms, making them more accessible. For example, consider the sentence: “The phenomenon of cognitive dissonance occurs when an individual experiences conflicting beliefs.” A paraphrase could be: “Cognitive dissonance happens when a person holds two opposing beliefs at the same time.” This simplification helps readers grasp the concept without losing its essence.
Avoiding Ambiguity
In semantics, clarity is vital. Paraphrasing can help eliminate ambiguity by providing alternative expressions that clarify meaning. For instance, if someone says, “He has a sharp tongue,” it could imply that he speaks harshly or that he is witty. A paraphrase like “He often makes cutting remarks” clarifies that the focus is on harshness rather than wit.
Demonstrating Comprehension
When students or writers paraphrase information, they demonstrate their understanding of the material. For example, if a student reads an article about climate change and then writes, “Climate change refers to significant alterations in temperature and weather patterns over time,” they show comprehension of the original text’s meaning while using their own words.
Facilitating Communication Across Different Contexts
Paraphrasing allows for effective communication across various contexts and audiences by adjusting language to fit different levels of understanding or cultural backgrounds. For instance, a technical explanation about artificial intelligence might be paraphrased for a general audience as: “Artificial intelligence is technology that allows machines to think and learn like humans.” This adaptation ensures that the message resonates with diverse groups.
Supporting Academic Integrity
In academic writing, paraphrasing is essential for maintaining integrity and avoiding plagiarism. When researchers incorporate others’ ideas into their work through paraphrasing, they acknowledge the original source while contributing their interpretation or analysis. For example, instead of copying a passage verbatim from a research paper on social behavior, one might write: “Research indicates that social interactions significantly influence individual behavior.” This approach respects intellectual property while still conveying important information.
MODULE 4: THEMATIC ROLES
The concept of Thematic Role
Thematic roles (also called theta roles or semantic roles) refer to the different roles that participants in a sentence can have in relation to the action or event described by the verb. These roles help define the relationship between the verb and the noun phrases (subjects, objects, etc.) that occur in a sentence. These roles help clarify who is doing what in an event or situation described by the verb. The classification of thematic roles is essential for understanding sentence structure and meaning in natural language. The following are some of the thematic roles in English.
Agent
An agent is the entity (somebody/ something) that performs an action. (the doer of the action).
Example:
The boy kicked the ball.
“The boy” is the agent.
Agents are can be human (The boy), as in (a) below. Also, they can be non-human entities that cause actions, as a natural force as in ( b) (The wind), a machine as in (c) (A car), or an animal as in ( d) (The dog).
The boy kicked the ball.
The wind blew the ball away.
A car ran over the ball.
The dog caught the ball.
The diagram below clarifies the “Types of Agents”
Theme (Patient)
“Theme” (sometimes called the “patient”) refers to the entity that is affected by an action or that undergoes a change of state as a result of an event. The theme is typically the object of a verb, representing what is being acted upon or what is central to the action. It does not necessarily have to be animate; it can also refer to inanimate objects or abstract concepts. In the previous examples (a- d), the ball was the entity that was affected by the action. Therefore, “the ball” in the sentences above is the theme (patient).
Example:
The boy kicked the ball.
The wind blew the ball away.
A car ran over the ball.
The dog caught the ball.
However, the theme can also be an entity (the ball) that is being described (i.e. not acted upon by the agent).
The ball is red.
(Theme)
Mary is beautiful.
(Theme)
Experiencer
The “experiencer” role refers specifically to an entity that perceives or experiences something, often related to mental states or sensory perceptions. The experiencer typically denotes someone who has feelings, thoughts, or sensory experiences but may not actively participate in an action. An experiencer experiences a sensory perception or emotional state but does not cause it. This role often involves feelings or perceptions rather than direct actions.
Examples:
John feels happy. ( feeling)
(Experiencer)
Huda heard some noise outside. ( perception)
(Experiencer)
Bill is sitting on the chair. (physical state)
(Experiencer)
Jack is thinking about the problem. ( mental state)
(Experiencer)
Instrument
An instrument refers to the entity or an object used to perform an action. It indicates how an agent carries out their action.
Example:
The girl opened the door with the key.
(Instrument)
The woman cut the cake with a knife.
(Instrument)
Benefactive
Benefactive is the living entity that benefits from the action of the verb. A Benefactive always benefits from an action, even if it does not directly receive an object or item. The benefactive is often the indirect recipient of an action, in that the action is done for their benefit or in their interest. The Benefactive typically gains from the action, but may not physically receive the object or action in the same way a Recipient does.
Examples:
“She baked a cake for her friend.
Benefactive: her friend (The friend benefits from the cake being baked, even though they do not receive it directly.
I paid school fees for my wife.
Benefactive: my wife (the wife is the one who benefits from the school fees though doesn’t directly receive it.
Recipient
Recipient is the living entity that physically receives something from the agent. It might be something tangible or abstract. The recipient receives something, typically as a result of an action involving giving, sending, or transferring something (transactions). He recipient is the direct receiver or destination of the action
Examples
He handed her the keys.
Recipient: her (she is the one receiving the keys)
She gave him a book
Recipient: him (The recipient of the book)
Locative/Location
The locative role indicates the location where an action occurs or where something exists or situated. It answers the question “where?” and typically involves static situations rather than movements.
Examples
She lives in New York
(Locative)
The book is on the table.
(Locative)
John is at the store.
(Locative)
Temporal
“Temporal” refers to the time when an event or action takes place.
Examples
I have an appointment on Sunday.
(Temporal)
I’ll go shopping in the afternoon.
(Temporal)
He returned home at 6:00 p.m.
(Temporal)
Source
The source role refers to the origin or starting point of an action, particularly when something is moving away from a location. It answers the question "From where?
Examples
John is coming from Chicago.
(Source)
She borrowed a magazine from George.
(Source)
Goal
The goal role refers to the destination or endpoint of an action, especially when something is moving toward a location. It answers the question "To where? Examples
Khalid is driving to school.
Here school is the goal because indicates the destination of the movement.
"He is going to the office.
Here, "the office" is the goal because it indicates the endpoint of his movement.
STATUS AND PROBLEMS OF THEMATIC ROLES
The Status of Thematic Roles
The status of thematic roles refers to their recognition and application within linguistic theory. While they are widely accepted as useful tools for semantic analysis, there are ongoing debates about their universality across languages and their rigid categorization. Thematic roles are essential in understanding sentence meaning, but their application and classification can present certain challenges. Here’s a discussion of their status and some of the problems associated with them, along with examples.
Role Flexibility
Some verbs allow for flexibility in thematic role assignment. For example, in sentences like “The wind blew away the leaves,” “the wind” can be seen as both an agent (causing movement) and a causer (not acting with intention). This duality complicates strict classifications.
Widely Used Framework
Thematic roles are a core part of linguistic theory, particularly in semantics and syntax. They help linguists understand how different arguments relate to verbs and the meanings that arise from these relationships.
Cross-Linguistic Relevance
The concept of thematic roles is applicable across many languages, which supports their validity as a universal feature of human language. For instance, the roles of Agent, Theme, and Goal can be found in various languages, though their specific grammatical realizations may differ.
Facilitates Comprehension
Thematic roles help in parsing sentences and understanding their meanings, especially in complex constructions. They provide a systematic way to analyze sentence structure and meaning
PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH THEMATIC ROLES
Ambiguity
One significant problem is the ambiguity that can arise from the same verb being used in different contexts, leading to multiple interpretations of thematic roles. For instance, consider the verb “give.
Example:
“In the sentence “She gave him a book,” “she” is the agent, “him” is the recipient and “a book” is the theme.
However, in “He gave her a reason to leave,” while “he” remains the agent, “her” now takes another role as the experiencer of the reason provided.
Overlapping Roles
Sometimes participants may overlap in their roles within a single sentence or across sentences involving similar actions.
Examples:
“Chama gave the ball to Dube”
In this sentence “Dube” is both the recipient and the goal.
Implicit Thematic Roles
Some verbs imply certain thematic roles that are not explicitly stated in the sentence but are understood through context. This can lead to challenges in determining the full set of arguments for a verb.
Examples:
“He ate”
The verb ate usually requires a Theme (something to be eaten), but the sentence does not explicitly state what was eaten. Based on context, we might infer that a Theme is implied, but it is not grammatically expressed. This creates challenges when analyzing thematic roles because not all arguments are overtly realized
Thematic Role Assignment in Non-canonical Constructions
Some syntactic constructions deviate from typical subject-object patterns, making it harder to assign thematic roles.
Example
“The book was read by Mary”.
In this passive sentence, The book is the Theme (the entity that undergoes the action), and Mary is still the Agent, but she is placed in a prepositional phrase rather than as the subject of the sentence. The passive construction changes the usual assignment of thematic roles, which can create difficulties in understanding how roles are mapped to arguments.
Thematic role assignment in Idiomatic Expressions and Fixed Phrases
Some verbs and phrases have idiomatic meanings that do not follow the regular pattern of thematic role assignment, making them difficult to interpret.
Example
“She kicked the bucket”.
In a literal sense, kicked would assign a Theme to the bucket and an Agent to she. However, in this idiomatic expression, "kicked the bucket" means "died," so the bucket is no longer the Theme of a physical action, but a part of an idiomatic phrase with a metaphorical meaning. This makes it hard to assign standard thematic roles because the sentence's meaning is figurative rather than literal.
The Problem of Psychological Verbs and the Experiencer Role
With psychological verbs (such as like, fear, love, regret), the distinction between Agent and Experiencer can be blurry. The Experiencer is the argument that undergoes a mental or emotional state, but it's often not clear whether this is an active or passive role.
John likes Mary.
Mary likes John.
In both sentences, John and Mary are Experiencers of the emotional state of liking. However, the traditional agentive role doesn't easily apply here because both participants are involved in the experience rather than performing an action. The lack of a clear Agent here is a significant problem in assigning thematic roles.
Cross-linguistic Variability
Thematic roles can vary significantly across languages, which poses challenges for linguists studying semantics universally.
For instance:
In English, we might say “The dog chased the cat,” where “the dog” is clearly an agent. However, in some languages like Japanese or Korean, the same action might be expressed differently due to varying syntactic structures or cultural norms regarding agency.
